BLack and white- eric walters Essay Example for Free

BLack and white- eric walters Essay The name of the book is Black and White. It is written by Eric Walters. The illustrator of the book is Joe Baker. This book was published by the Penguin Group in 2009. The genre is fiction. Black and White is book about Thomas and his best friend Steve who tries to persuade him to watch girls play basketball on a sunny afternoon, and Thomas reluctantly follows him. As they started to watch the game, a black girl named Denyse caught Thomas eye with her basketball skills. On a Friday night, through a series of funny coincidences because they had a lot in common, they end up going to the movies together, and affectionate feelings develop between them. After confessing their love for each other during a ski trip, but start to encounter racial problems. They cannot understand what the big deal is, but the pressure of this relationship break them apart. I would definitely recommend this book to everybody and I would rate this book 9/10. I think the author did a fabulous job of capturing the reader’s attention in the first few chapters. As I start to read Black and White, I assumed it would end up as a typical romance but the relationship between the races and the problems that came up made it more interesting. I feel the need that other people should definitely read Black and White because it involves something that we see Dhaliwal 2 everyday which is racism. Although I think that the book is quite interesting, it was too over- sentimental for my taste. This book relates to history because in the book there are racist remarks and racism has been a problem for centuries. Also, it is a nice book to read for Black History Month. Its perfectly suitable for a young age group, with a complete lack of swearing for example but I think this book is perfect for normal ten years and up because the book has some high vocabulary. I dont think audience under 10 might be able to understand so its good for middle school kids and up. I think the authors point of view was that love is blind, no matter your skin colour. Definitely, this book brings racial discrimination to light.

Analysis of Nietzsche’s Genealogy of Morals

Analysis of Nietzsche’s Genealogy of Morals When God died, what happened to the people? Therefore neither can an animal move about in the closed as such, no more than it can comport itself toward the unconcealed. The animal is excluded from the essential domain of the conflict between unconcealedness and concealedness. The sign of such an exclusion is that no animal or plant â€Å"has the word. (Heidegger: 1992:159-60) The concealed in Heidegger is that which conceals from us it’s being. What emerges in Heidegger, in his pursuit of this clearing, is the slim line – the slippery border, between human and animal. The animal in Heidegger cannot see the sun as it rushes towards it: it can never dissocial the sun as a being. It is at once open and non-open, or rather, it operates in an ambiguity between the two fields. Man in Heidegger becomes that which is produced precisely at this border: at the moment of caesura and articulation between human and animal: it is this that passes for man, and it is this than expresses well the relationship of man to language. Man is never outside language: language is always already expressed as a radical exclusion of that which is not which operates as a fundamental category of exclusion(Agamben: 2004a: 91) The last century and a half have been full of attempts to move outside of language: to pass into new notions of subjectivity that move outside of what it is to be human. Nietzsche’s attempt to destroy traditional notions of subjectivity stands out as a crystallisation point in a process that sees Delouse, Foucault and Derrida, to name the three philosophers this dissertation will discuss, move outside notions of the human trapped within language and the creation of the subject. In doing so they criticise a notion of the subject trapped within binary constructions and the hierarchical notions of the subject that one finds in Hegel; in doing so they echo the criticism of Christianity that Nietzsche made. This dissertation will analyse the reasons for which Nietzsche attempts to destroy the traditional notion of the subject and replace it with a particularism notion of the subject: forever in astute of becoming that escapes binary configurations. We will evaluate to what extent he was successful in his enterprise, and what type of subjectivity was brought forth. In analysing the ways in which Deleuze,Foucault and Derrida take up his project, we will analyse a genealogy of thought that attempts to successively move beyond what we understands human. These three methods open up a series of liberating possibilities to philosophy and politics, and the configurations of these possibilities we be analysed. However, in the radical indeterminacy of Derrida, in the pessimistic, frantic activism of Foucault, and in the schizo-analysis of Delouse we can detect the same problem that we find in Nietzsche: at work in him is that oblivion (or as Bataille would term it, that excess) â€Å"which lies at the foundation of the biologist of the nineteenth century and of psychoanalysis† and what produces â€Å"monstrous anthropomorphization of†¦ the animal and a corresponding animalization of man† (Heidegger: 1992:152). Heidegger still believed, as none of the philosophers considered in the dissertation do, in the possibility of a good project of the polis; that there was still a good historical space in which one could find a historical destiny grounded in being. He, later in life, realized his mistake. In this, he comes toe point where his criticism of Nietzsche becomes most pointed. Nietzsche’s eulogisation of man is that which pre-empts the emptying out of value we find a man at the end of history. Nietzsche is blind to what the caesura of naming man as such might mean: in doing so, and in asserting the gelatinisation of the truth of the polis, the ambiguous border between man and animal collapses. It is precisely the â€Å"essential border between the mystery of the living being and the mystery of what is historical† (Heidegger: 1992:239) that is not dealt with by Nietzsche’s work and it is thus constantly exposed to the possibility of an â€Å"unlimited and groundless anthropomorphization of the animal† that places the animal above man and makes a ‘super-man’ (ibid:160) of it. Life becomes reified over and above the precise condition of its existence; that very condition which makes it always already in dependency on those very grounds of its existence. We will find this same problem repeated in Foucault, who in his criticism of the construction of the subject in modernity illustrates the way in which modern notions of sovereignty act directly on the bios of modern man; this is where modernity begins to act on animal life(this time where equivalence has rendered the possibility of time null)and what is at stake in the construction of the subject is the possibility of his life. Yet, Foucault, like Nietzsche, illustrates this genealogy of dependence without being able to elucidate its historical specificity, which is in its construction of a zone of exclusion at the basis of ontology itself (this can be seen in Foucault’s error in treating bio power as a modern phenomenon). This same problem is manifest in the differ and of Derrida, and in Deleuze’s notion of the organs without a body: each in turns finds itself the symptom of the radical historicism. Each proclaims this symptom a cure, without realising that the cure they offer is precisely that which is the symptom. In all these theorists what this amounts to is misunderstanding of the nature of language. Thus, while Nietzsche manages to destroy stable notions of the subject, the unstable notion he replaces them with, while apparently liberating, exists within the same binaries he seeks to destroy, and moreover, allows for the exactly the same herd instinct that he seeks to overcome. I. Why I needed to kill God I.I We see ourselves in every mirror What, in all strictness, has really conquered the Christian God? (†¦) Christian morality itself, the concept of truthfulness taken more and more strictly, the confessional subtlety of the Christian conscience translated and sublimated into the scientific conscience, into intellectual cleanliness at any price. To view nature as if it were a proof of the goodness and providence of a God; to interpret history to the glory of divine reason, as the perpetual witness to a moral world order and moral intentions; to interpret one’s own experiences, as pious men long interpreted them, as if everything were preordained, everything a sign, everything sent for salvation of the soul that now belongs to the past, that has conscience against it†¦. In this way, Christianity as a dogma was destroyed by its own morality†¦. (Nietzsche: 1969:160) Nietzsche’s Genealogy of Morals outlines the way in which Christianity formulates its notion of the subject. The Christian super-ego is posited as salvation, as the point towards which one works. Thus, the Christian subject exists as, first and foremost, alack: it is not what it wishes to be. Yet, as Nietzsche points out, this lack is a condition and construction of the subject within Christianity: one resembles oneself and yet in order to find deliverance must become more of oneself and in doing so one finds justification for the present order of things. The Christian superegos to be found in God, and then, surprise, surprise, the Christian ego can be found placed in the soul of the body. This parallels the analysis that Foucault makes of the subject (1999, 1975). The law construct the subject as normal (and in doing so sets up an exclusion of the abnormal, or that which is not: that which has no voice – icon-human) and in this process creates a desiring-subject, who desires what the law has not given it. Yet these desires are what are created by the notion of the subject placed upon one: one is created absent, oars not that, not this, but always awaiting a day when one can be called by a proper name. It is this awaiting a proper name that Nietzsche attacks most strongly, and in this theory of language we shall see Nietzsche allows no place for such a proper name. A proper name relation, Nietzsche argues, is always a relationship between a creditor and a debtor; it is always typified by the dependence or lack, and as such prevents the possibility that of morality to be free and joyous. Nietzsche though, and is not commented on very much, reserves some tender thoughts for Christianity. It is a primal Christianity, a Dionysian Christianity, that Nietzsche can endorse. As much can be seen in the quote that started this section: Nietzsche’s criticism of Christianity should not be seen to be limited to Christianity. Rather, it extends to all relationships of debt and obligation to a structuring super-ego. It was not Nietzsche, he claims, that killed Christianity, it was Christianity itself, and Nietzsche loathes the nihilism that replaces it just as much. We can discern three criticisms of Christianity/nihilism in the quote that started this dissertation. Nietzsche elaborates that one of the structures of Christianity is the idea of a puritanical truthfulness, which has been sublimated into scientific consciousness. Nietzsche’s primary criticism of this truthfulness is that is relies upon a correspondence theory of truth: it requires an external state that can be matched in some way to an internal state (which then requires a subject to have such an internal state). For Nietzsche, consciousness created in such a way in simply ashram, an intentional lie: consciousness lies free and unbounded – it has no centre around which it can orientate itself. Furthermore, the mapping between a real world of existent things (Kant’s ding an such)and a subjective world of language is not possible. It is not possible because language only ever refers to itself. To use Saussure’s(1995:12) terminology, a sign can only have meaning within another setoff signs; it has no essential relationship to the world that is signified. A correspondence theory of truth attempts to hold up astatic a world that is in constant flux and in doing so negates the possibility of human freedom, which Nietzsche opposes to belief. The importance of this critique of the Christian subject will be returned to later in the dissertation when we consider Nietzsche’s theory of language. The second crucial critique of Christianity made in the quote that begins this dissertation is of history as possessing meaning, as divine providence being read into history as if it were a series of signs. This resembles the structural properties of psychoanalysis that Delouse(1983a, 1983b, 1984) was so devastatingly to criticise. One can read one’s entire life as a history of redemption, as Benjamin (1986:112)comments. In this reading, every moment of one’s life in which one fails, feels regret of guilt because one is not conterminous with the notion of the subject given to you, can be read as a sign of messianic moment to come: it is to deny the contingent and necessary existence one has in favour of a reified notion of being that removes life from life. Nietzsche realises that such a realisation about life is scary, and he realises that people will cling onto a Christian notion of belief even if it has no rational foundation: that is why in Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1 969) he attempts to convince people through rhetoric rather than argument. Several elements of Nietzsche’s thought here are important to note. While he attacks Christianity, in the long quote we started the section with he already observes that the technological-scientific paradigm replaces Christianity while adopting all of its tenants. As Nietzsche(1974:108) comments: â€Å"after Buddha was dead, his shadow was still shown for centuries in a cave a tremendous, gruesome shadow. God is dead; but given the way of men, there may still be caves for thousands of years in which his shadow will be shown. -And we- we still have to vanquish his shadow, too.† Science is this shadow: it refuses an engagement with the world in favour of a mystified detached observer who can sit back and observe the world rather than engage within its context. This DE contextualisation actually ends up relativizing the world. This is a radical historicism that believes the role of the pasties to come to the rescue of the future: temporality is shortened tallow only a pre sent, an immediate process of desiring-lack and sustenance. It allows for the feigned equivalence of all men, as they are all equal as subjects, and as all in this equivalence all notions of importance and goals are emptied of meaning by an effectively moribund set of values that deny life in favour of a search for authentic experience. This search for authentic experience is termed active nihilism in Nietzsche: it is an attempt to confront the emptiness of value categories with frenetic action: this is what Size (2001:48) calls the passion for the real: the passion for frenetic experience that ultimately culminates in its simulacrum. It culminates in its simulacrum because the passion for the real (as opposed to the empty appearance people inhabit) eventually becomes the passion for the real without risk – for one only risks if there is something one is willing to die for: for Nietzsche the chance and contingency of the eternal return – and thus we see the Nietzsche an concepts of passive and active nihilism end up, in late modern capitalism, becoming one. We can see that the co-existence of what we could term the correspondence theory of truth and the history as destiny theory (where everything is able tube reconciled to the present) inevitably end up in this structure of nihilism. Both of these theories rely on several underlying structures of thought that Nietzsche was also quick to criticise in Christianity. Innis analysis of the origins of Christianity, he notes (1956:112):â€Å"Christianity was from the beginning, essentially and fundamentally, life’s nausea and disgust with life, merely concealed behind, masked by, dressed up as, faith in another or better life.† Christianity was always underlined by a series of binary logics: this is not the right life: this one is better; hate: love, God: Satan. It is this binary thinking that comes in for a huge amount of criticism from Nietzsche. It is these binaries that ignore that the world is in astute of becoming, that it is forever in a state of flux. Nietzsche notes (1966:12): â€Å"it may be doubted, firstly whether there exists any antithesis at all, and secondly whether these popular evaluations and value anti-thesis, on which the metaphysicians have set their seal, are not perhaps foreground valuations, merely provisional perspectives. â€Å"Therefore, Nietzsche’s criticism is not simply of our values, as we have seen in the previous paragraphs, but of the way in which our values are constructed. Nietzsche’s theory of language illustrates that each of the terms in binary series is dependent on the other. Butler (1990,1993) undertakes similar enterprise inspired by Nietzsche when she investigates the dependency of the category women on the category man and vice versa. Power is exercised, Nietzsche understands, in the formation of the very categories themselves, not merely in the ascription of certain people to good and certain people to bad. It is a mistake to fight for the category of lack, because the detestable thing is the very category: by fighting against the lack (e.g. of women for rights) one is accepting the terms of the herd mentality; that one must accept the givens of the situation and its binary categories. This is why a genealogy of morals is necessary, to (Butler: 1990:ix)â€Å"investigate the political stakes in designating as an origin and cause those identity categories that are in fact the effects of institutions, practices, discourses with multiple and diffuse points of origin.† Such pursuit unseats the claim of a binary logic to an objective reality: they show them as temporal formations that constitute a world for the subject. However, such a world is always shot through with lack. One can illustrate this using Alcan’s (1981) theory of mirrors, which he derives from Nietzsche’s view of the subject. In Alcan’s view, one is never identical to the role one has been assigned in life. The social formation of life (which is an appearance) is full of inconsistency and incompleteness. As Christina Wolf (1980:151) comments in her novel: Nelly couldn’t help it: the charred building made her sad. But she didn’t know that she was feeling sad [my emphasis], because she wasn’t supposed to feel sad. She had long ago begun to cheat herself out of her true feelings†¦.Gone, forever gone, is the beautiful, free correlation between emotions and events†¦. It wouldn’t have taken much for Nelly to have succumbed to an improper emotion: compassion. But healthy German common sense built barrier against it: anxiety. The character Nelly feels the dissonance between the world she is in and the world she experiences: she experiences anxiety over it. Such anxiety is the mark of the problem of binary categorisation. This categorisation does not resemble the world, which is in flux, but it places over it a series of categories that are power relationships designed to constitute you as a subject. We can perhaps draw a parallel here between what Nietzsche analyses in his philosophy of language as the productive power of the grammar of an age and what Laplace(1989:130), following Alcan, calls the source-object of drives. These unconscious formations are an encounter between an individual whose psycho-somatic structures are situated predominantly at the level of need, and signifiers emanating from an adult. Those signifiers pertain to the satisfaction of the child’s needs, but they also convey the purely interrogative potential of other messages—and those other messages are sexual. These enigmatic messages set the child the difficult, or even impossible, task of mastery and symbolization and the attempt to perform it inevitably leaves behind unconscious residues†¦. I refer to them as the source objects of the drives. What one must be careful to do here is to distinguish between the early Nietzsche and his later work. In early work such as the Birth of Tragedy (1956), Nietzsche can still talk about an essential essence that the Christian or Apollonian reasoning hides. In his later work he fully endorses the view that consciousness is but surface: a radically anti-essentialist position that refuses the possibility of an outside of language or of consciousness. There is then, no real that one can break through the appearance to get to, as one might in psychoanalysis. However, that does not necessarily mean the psychoanalytic reading were doing here is incorrect. Laconia analysis departs from the Freudian analysis that Delouse criticizes in its conception of the subject. For Nelly, the character in Wolf’s novel, the state fore-anxiety might be referred to as true, but a sense of what it is would be to call it uninhibited: free from the strictures of power. In the later Nietzsche, the ability t o escape the possibility of the subject is ambiguous. What Nelly asks for is not an absolute escape, as Laplace does not ask that the child can master the symbolization of his parents and escape the drives. Rather, what is inferred is continual tension and thrust against that which claims to be objective and masks desire, put in a Delusion idiom: it is the consistent schizoid refusal to stasis. As such, it parallels the construction of the subject in Foucault. Like Nietzsche and Butler, Foucault performs a genealogy. Like the later Nietzsche, Foucault realizes the impossibility of breaking through language. One is always already constructed as a subject: any attempt to break out of this trap relies on an exterior moral framework that simply replicates the binaries of an existing power discourse. Foucault (1979:178) notes that â€Å"discourse creates the object of which it speaks.† Discourse gives rise to a subject, and an attempt to break out of the subject through a call to a value (such as revolutionary purity, truth) falls into the same power trap as existing political discourse. What Foucault and Nietzsche both call into question is the notion of valorisation itself: that which always assumes a dichotomousbinarisation. However, rather than placing their project within an appeal to the real outside of language, both claim the most one can does attack language thro ugh language. This task means to constantly reveal that which appears as objective as actually a temporally structured mask of power. Thus for Foucault (1984:217): The real political task in a society such as ours is to criticize the working of institutions which appear to be both neutral and independent; to criticize them in such a manner that the political violence which has always exercised itself through them will be unmasked, so that one can fight them. This task has no end or limit: indeed, an end or limit is part of the notion of the structure of power; that there is this goal that you must attain, that you are not this, though at a certain point you may indeed attain it. We can see such notions of end goal rely on the interpretation of history as divine providence (or in the secular historicist version, history being called to the rescue of the present)that Nietzsche was so quick to criticise as ignoring the contingency and chance of existence. Both of these parallel Deleuze’s criticism of hierarchical structure as that which inhibits desire and presses it into the service of power. What this entails is not simply the refutation of God at the centre of the world, defining the notion of our being. It is a refutation of a centre of the world. Secularism simply replaces God with man, and declares that the self-autonomous mains that which defines our values, when we do not act in a way accorded to by the hegemony, then it is u s who are lacking. Thus, Nietzsche(1962:346) makes a comment much like Marx when he says â€Å"we now laugh when we find ‘Man and World’ placed beside one another, separated by the sublime presumption of the little world ‘and.’ Thus, in Nietzsche it is not simply Christianity but its zombie replacement rationality that needs to be criticised. Foucault continues this task in The Order of Things (1994), attacking the Human account of causality and truth than requires a one to one mapping between things and their referents. This criticism is possible because, as Nietzsche notes (1968:616) â€Å"the world with which we are concerned . . .is not a fact . . . it is in flux, as something in a state of becoming, as a falsehood always changing but never getting near the truth: for—there is no truth.† This is the strongest statement of Nietzsche’s project. He wants to undermine the notion of truth and reveal it for a set of power constructions and particularities. With the notion of truth, the notion of the proper name (the proper place for the human subject) becomes impossible, and what opens up is decentred multitude of consciousness like that which Delouse (1980:332) outlines in Mille Plateaux . This project would have what is productive as that which is nomadic, which refuses all forms of hierarchy in favour of that which is additive. To carry out such project it is necessary to destroy the possibility of belief. I.II Our beliefs are our weakness If there is today still no lack of those who do not know how indecent it is to believeor a sign of decadence, of a broken will to livewell, they will know it tomorrow. (Nietzsche: 1990:3) For Nietzsche, belief requires something outside of oneself. Indeed, belief can be understood as the opposite to freedom in Nietzsche’s thought. To believe in something is to believe in what that thing has made you into: it is to believe that one has something internal (belief) that can be referred to the world. As Nietzsche notes (ibid:347): Once a human being reaches the fundamental conviction that he must be commanded, he becomes a believer.’ Conversely, one could conceive of such a pleasure and power of self-determination, such a freedom of the will that the spirit would take leave of all faith and every wish for certainty, being practiced in maintaining himself on insubstantial ropes and possibilities and dancing even near abysses. As we have noted above, it is not enough to simply get rid of God. What happens to the people after we get rid of God? They run together, as a herd, scared, into other formations of command, such as nationalism. It is interesting to note here Foucault’s comment, that the challenge of nationalism (1994:228) was to â€Å"establish a system of signs in congruence with the transcendence of being.† It was to believe in a new grammar that replaced the old certainties of life with new certainties: the certainty of the glory of the death of the unknown soldier for the transcendent nation. That is why Nietzsche says,(1990:15): â€Å"we are not getting rid of God because we still believe in grammar.† Nietzsche’s real challenge is almost a challenge against language: it is an attempt to consistently run up against the limit of language and refute its hegemonic possibilities (e.g. in the distribution of tenses) at every turn. A grammar forces one to give lie to a real ity: the only such lies Nietzsche thinks are acceptable are innocent lies, those lies that enable communication in contingent fashion, that are not totalising and do not exceed the moment of their own expression. What happens with the new certainties is that they still rely on a concept of will. They ask one to partake in a world in which one is necessarily excluded (you are not this, yet†¦). For Nietzsche (1924:14),to believe in the will is to believe â€Å"every individual action is isolate and indivisible .† Thus runs counter to the idea of flux Nietzsche takes from Heraclitus. Actions are not simply formed but are always already part of a social world that means individual isolatable action is impossible. As is thinking. Thinking (Nietzsche: 1968:477)â€Å"as epistemologists conceive it, simply does not occur, it is a quite arbitrary fiction, arrived at by selecting one element from the process and eliminating all the rest, an artificial arrangement for the purpose of intelligibility.† This process of intelligibility constructs a world in which one is dependent on the process of selection: thought, like and will, becomes a tool to be used: a means-end relationship that requires the a priori separation of subject and object, thought and world, that Nietzsche so convincingly refutes. He notes (1990:54) that â€Å"the man of faith, the believer of every sort is necessarily dependent mansuch as cannot out of himself posit ends at all. The ‘believer does not belong to himself, he can be only a means, he haste be used, he needs someone who will use him.† In the hands of God, or secularism, agency is always placed outside yourself in the objective world that you lack. The weak believer who does not think that he wills(which is already a mistake) at least (ibid: 18) â€Å"puts a meaning into them: that is, he believes there is a will in them already (principle of â€Å"belief†).† To change this it is not enough to attack reason (as Adorn and Horkheimer do in The Dialectic of Enlightenment [1972]) but to attack the notion of the instincts. Instinct, while normally associated with that which is most natural, is in Nietzsche a product of discourse and habit over centuries, it is an unthinking subjectivity masquerading as the natural order of things. It is given by the law, and (Nietzsche:1990:57) â€Å"the authority of the law is established by the thesis: God gave it, the ancestors lived it.† To free habit, as we noticed earlier, requires not an attack on reason but an attack on habit, on unreflexive action: we need to liberate man from cause and effect. This task requires that man be liberated from the notion of the name. As Nietzsche (1956:20) claims: The lordly right of giving names extends so far that one should allow oneself to conceive the origin of language itself as an expression of power on the part of the rulers: they say this is this and this, they seal everything and event with a sound, as it were, take possession of it This feat requires a liberation from language. Here Nietzsche is at his most powerful, for he realises that it is in the very nature of language itself that the origin of power lays. Indeed, there is strong correlation between the attack on the sovereign in Nietzsche and Foucault and Saussaurian linguistics. In both the argument relies on the non-relation between signs and what they represent, and yet the continued claim of signs to be coterminous with what they represent, taking possession of it. Against this, Nietzsche wants to liberate us from names (1990:8). That no one is any longer made accountable, that the kind of being manifested cannot be traced to a cause prima, that the world is a unity neither as sensorium nor as spirit, this alone is the great liberation. This flux of things, clearly prevents the emergence of a subject: consciousness here, and for Nietzsche’s thought as a whole has, has no predetermined pattern. What we need to fight, for Nietzsche, is the giving of the pattern, the idea that the whole is no longer whole(1974:22). What is the sign of every literary decadence? That life no longer dwells in the whole. The word becomes sovereign and leaps out of the sentence, the sentence reaches out and obscures the meaning of the page, the page gains life at the expense of the wholethe whole is no longer a whole. I.III The Grammar of the Age, or how I learned to love the Word Life (Nietzsche: 1990:11) is a â€Å"continuous, homogenous, undivided, indivisible flowing.† For it is not the world that is simple and exact(what one could call the assigning of the world to the word: or to its lieu proper), rather through words we â€Å"are still continually misled into imagining things as being simpler than they are, separate from one another, indivisible, each existing in and for itself.† When Nietzsche writes this, he has abandoned the distinction between the apparent and the real world. There is no ideal for (ibid: 6): â€Å"with the real world we have also abolished the apparent world.† Such a world allows no notions of predestination, and no correspondence theory of truth. Anyone who speaks of such things is a liar (ibid: 38): One must know today that a theologian, a priest, a pope does not merely err in every sentence he speaks, he liesthat he is no longer free to lie innocently, out of ignorance. The priest knows as well as everyone that there is no longer any God, any sinner, any ‘redeemerthat free will, moral world-order are liesintellectual seriousness, the profound self-overcoming of the intellect, no longer permits anyone not to know about these things. What do we replace this met discourse with? We cannot replace it with a singular subject: a new revolutionary ideal or perfect subject, for this would be to become but another priest. Nietzsche (1968:490)argues: â€Å"the assumption of one single subject is perhaps unnecessary; perhaps it is just as permissible to assume a multiplicity of subjects, whose interaction and struggle is the basis of our thought and our consciousness in general? . . . My hypothesis: the subject as multiplicity. . . The continual transistorizes and fleetingness of the subject.† This is precisely what Delouse echoes half a century later when he claims (1983a: 5): â€Å"production as process overtakes all idealistic categories and constitutes a cycle whose relationship to desire is that of an imminent principle.† This multiplicity, one might ask: how does one get there, and what does one do when one is multiple, when one is the Dionysian figure who Nietzsche claims (1956:45) is in constant state of becoming, who is â€Å"the nominal â€Å"I† that is always becoming and his intoxicated state sounds out the depth of Being.† In one sense for Nietzsche this is an idle question: one cannot assume multitude is something in itself, indeed (1968:560): â€Å"that things possess a constitution in themselves quite apart from interpretation and subject

The objectives of Vodafone and how the stakeholders are influenced

The objectives of Vodafone and how the stakeholders are influenced Introduction The purpose of this assignment is to demonstrate the objectives of Vodafone and how the stakeholders are influenced by the company. It further illustrates the impact of the economic, social and global environment on Vodafone and how it helps them in making decisions. Moreover, the second half of the assignment shows how organizations in general act, role of the market structures and what are the strategies employed by the organizations to deal with them. Finally, The last task gives a good knowledge of how UK businesses have been affected by the European Union and whether joining the European Monitory Union is a solution to overcome recession. Mission, Objectives and responsibilities of an organization within its environment Mission, objectives and values: Vodafone is relatively a new company if it is compared with other UKs leading multinational companies such as Shell, BP and Rolls-Royce who have been in the industry for more than a century. Vodafone has defined a consistent set of values to achieve the aim of being a respected and pioneering company that puts the customer at the heart of their business. The essence of who they are underpins their values. They emphasize in the importance of; Speed   Vodafone is focused on speed to market, meaning they persistently prioritise and pursue the outcomes that matter to their business. Simplicity   They make things simple for their customers, partners and colleagues. Trust   They are reliable and transparent to deal with. They deliver for others, and believe on others to do the same. Their objective just like any other organization is reasonably high but they make no compromises in achieving their goals by not only having a bigger portfolio then the rivals but also by making sure that all the stake holders are influenced by the companys products and services. Influence of Stakeholders Vodafone believes in having constant feedbacks therefore dialogue between stakeholders is a part of normal business practice to them. This way the stakeholders are kept influenced by the company. Vodafone has the following stakeholders; Customers: Customers are the first priority and Vodafone ensures they are taken good care of. No customer would expect to be the cash cows hence it is essential that they are not overcharged for the products or services they use. They ensure this by marketing honestly; communicating openly and making sure customers are happy. Employees: Vodafone strongly believes that for customer satisfaction it is essential that the staff is well trained and have good knowledge of the products and services they are offering. Vodafone does that by recruiting and retaining the best people, invest in improving their skills and motivate employees by setting clear goals and reward them for achievements. Shareholders: They are the ones who have invested their money and time in the organization and therefore expect great returns or the share value of their company will decrease. Supply chain partners: The suppliers demands fairness and want to be dealt effectively and paid on time or it may cause a bad name for the company. Local community: They participate in local and national charities through The Vodafone UK Foundation, observe and aggressively reduce the impact of the business on the environment by recycling  mobile phones, reducing waste and energy saving activities. They also make certain that the concerns of local communities, pressure groups and all other stake holders are heard and considered before coming to a decision. Government: The governments controls organizations by putting laws and acting as watchdogs what the wants taxes, regenerate the area to reduce unemployment and ease disaffection amongst communities. Achieving the objectives of Stakeholders: Customers: Vodafone has 10% of the worlds market for mobile telephony and they have achieved this by safeguarding the rights of customers by setting up objectives and ensuring they are met precisely. Their reputation depends on earning trust of their customers and therefore they rely on the following main aspects for customer satisfaction. Content standards: Due to the large range of contents available online on mobile phones, Vodafone introduced a supervisory body where inappropriate content for all customers, especially young users are protected. Responsible Marketing: They make sure communications are always legitimate, decent, reasonable, authentic, straightforward and sensitive to the views of different groups in society. Pricing Policies: Clarity and affordability of pricing across the markets have been improved by introducing simpler price plans, and making tariffs more liable and flexible. They have also reformatted bills to help communicate the new price plans in a simpler way. Driving Safety: They support national legislation to promote safe use of mobile phones to drivers. For this reason they have invested in advertising and campaighing to Drive Safe! and also recommend hands-free kits to be used in cars for emergency. Product Safety: Before purchasing products, they conduct risk assessments to identify any health and safety issues. In the event that a product or piece of equipment is found to be unsafe, an immediate incident investigation is required and acted upon. Employees: Vodafone relies on it employees. Its their enthusiasm, talent and commitment that brought the company where it is today. Vodafone aims to treat all employees equally, ensuring healthy employee relations through open communication and consultation processes. Equal opportunity: Employee diversity is an asset to them, having employed people from different phases of life and of different gender and ages it helps them to serve customers all around the world. By instructing the recruitment consultants to recommend a suitable female candidate for every vacancy at management level, ensuring mobility needs are met for disabled employees and by international rotation of the employees; Vodafone aims to focus on Gender, Cultural and Disabled diversities, respectively. Reward and recognition: On meeting the targets they are given bonuses and benefits. They offer benefits such as medical insurance, subsidised mobile phones, share plans and retirement benefits. Training and Development: They provide training and development prospects to support employees gain new skills, and inspire them to reach their full potential. Vodafone offers a wide range of online courses related to specific aspects of the business or key skill sets. Community: Vodafone invests heavily in the community and has been working with various charities and welfare organizations to serve the community. For this reason they launch campaigns on a regular basis globally and domestically where they either contribute directly by giving charities, medical health to desired countries organizing events and asking the local people, their own employees and customers to participate in it for free. Vodafone also believes in being an environment friendly organization and therefore it encourages recycling of mobile phones and for this reason they are working on several campaigns as well. Responsibilities and Strategies employed to meet them: Vodafone is largest telecommunications Network Company in the world by turnover and they achieved this by being a pioneer in bringing revolutions. Being at this stage when they have other companies that look onto them, it is their responsibility to maintain their position. For this reason Vodafone is one step forward than its competitors. Vodafone does not only focus on the buying and selling of its products but also ensures that all the stakeholders are kept happy with their products by working on building a sustainable future. They are doing this by meeting societys needs and focusing on the areas where their interventions can address sustainability challenges most effectively at the same time as offering an attractive commercial return for their shareholders. They have set clear priorities to; Capturing the potential of mobile to bring socio-economic value in both emerging economies and developed markets, through broadening access to communications to all sections of society. Delivering progress against stakeholder expectations on the key areas of climate change, a safe and responsible internet experience and sustainable products and services. Ensure their operating standards are consistent and of an appropriate level across the group. Economic, social and global environment in which the organisations operate 2.1) Economic Systems: An economic system is a set of basic rules that a country implies to organize the ownership and allocation of economic resources.   From the countrys point of view, production of goods and services are influenced by the limited supply of elements as labour, land, natural resources and capital. Types of economies In general different countries adapt different types of economic systems. They are as follows; Planned Economy: In this type of economy the government controls the resources and has the command over every decision which is why it is also called Command Economy Mixed Economy: In a mixed economy both the sectors, individuals and the government, play a vital role in economic-decision making of the country. Market Economy: In such an economy market decisions are mainly dominated by supply and demand and the government. Government plays a minor role and the consumers drive the economy according to their needs. 2.1.1) Effective use of resources: The essential economic problem in any society is to provide a procedure for distributing resources and consumption among individuals who cant satisfy their wants, given limited resources. Every nation, no matter how the government works, who controls the government or how rich or poor the government is, three basic economic questions must be answered to allocate effective use of resources; What and how much to produce? From whom will it be produced? How will it be produced? UK Economic System: The United Kingdom operates a mixed economic system, where most of the decisions are to be made by the free market but at the same time the government has maintained a minimum wage, set out certain rules and regulations for environmental protection and provides medical facilities for the member of public. 2.2) Impact of Social welfare and industrial policy on organizations and wider community In 2007-08, about  £158 billion was spent on social security benefits in Great Britain. This amounts to approximately  £2,580 for every man, woman and child in the country and represents 25.6 % of total government expenditure. The UK believes strongly in the constant welfare of its people and therefore a public sector organization has been formed that ensures anyone who cant afford the basic necessities is given funds by the government through the tax payers money so that they can overcome poverty. Benefits are given from the day a child is born until the day he/she is deceased, provided they are entitled to it. One can be eligible for benefits if he/she is; Un-Employed Needs extra help with student finance On low income Expecting or bringing up children Ill or injured Disabled In retirement Caring for someone Although the social services system was introduced for the welfare of people, it has now been found out that a number of people have been misusing it and this has caused the government billions of pounds. Therefore in the recent budget the government has announced welfare cuts like freezing child benefits for 3 years, housing benefits restricted to a maximum of  £400 a week, a proper medical assessment for people claiming disability from work and so on and so forth. In my own opinion many of the benefits that are being reduced should not have existed in the first place. Vodafone and the benefits to employees: Depending on the location, Vodafone offer benefits such as medical insurance, subsidised mobile phones, share plans and retirement benefits. Retirement benefits are provided through a variety of arrangements, including defined contribution schemes. These vary depending on the conditions and practices in the countries concerned such as local market practice, taxation, legislation and the quality of the states pension. Industrial Policy: The issue of climate change is affecting the whole world and steps are to be taken to slow down this process. The UK Government is committed to showing international leadership in this area by taking possible steps to overcome this global issue. However, UK alone cannot overcome this because it is only responsible for roughly 2% of global carbon dioxide emissions. Vodafone and the environment: Vodafone takes climate change very seriously and has therefore set themselves a goal of being recognized as a green brand by 2010. For this reason they have already started working on securing the future by working on the following initiatives; Handset recycling   Fewer upgrades Universal and Solar chargers Reduced packaging E-billing Behaviour of organization and the market environment 3.1) How does market structures deviate from model of perfect competition Usually, while starting a new business firms start off in a perfect competition market, meaning they have many competitors and buyers. This basically gives them a chance to dissolve in the market. However, an aim for every successful organization is to be able to set a price they want and produce products that no one else is making. For this reason their approach from the beginning is to become a monopoly organization. However, Monopoly between organizations used to exist few years back but now it is impossible to have Monopoly because there is a lot of competition and the regulatory bodies ensure that no one has the right to take over the market all to themselves. Since becoming a Monopoly organization is not possible, the next best option is to adapt an oligopoly structure. This means there are not many competitors compared to what you find in perfect competition but its the maximum an organization can go to. In oligopoly they have a command over their pricing because not many buyers are selling it so they can set up a price accordingly and then approach the consumers. 3.2) Porters five forces: To start a business one needs to find out what problems they might face while entering a new market, for this reason Porters five forces are taken into consideration. Porters five forces go along with the market structures and it helps in finding out how each market structure may be affected by porters forces. Competitive rivalry With o2, orange, virgin, 3 and t-mobile operating in the market, there is a high rate of competition and therefore Vodafone ensures they are always offering services that give them a competitive advantage over it rivals. Bargaining power of customers The customers of Vodafone hold a very strong bargaining power because they can buy similar products and services from other rivals as well. For this reason Vodafone has to ensure that their pricing are very competitive and customer satisfaction is always taken into consideration before coming to a conclusion. Bargaining power of suppliers Due to the geographical existence and being one of the worlds leading mobile services providers, Vodafone has a good control over the suppliers. Vodafone has approximately 1550 suppliers worldwide and this enables them to have a command over the bargaining power of its suppliers. Threat of substitutes Vodafone faces  a low threat of product  substitutes. It is very difficult for the competitors to launch a similar substitute at a lower rate because Vodafone has already penetrated the markets and keeps itself up to date with the price changes and technological advancements. Threat of entry Threat of entrants is only possible when your products are either not according to the needs of customers or are relatively higher in price. For this reason Vodafone continuously keeps an eye on the market behaviour and reduces the costs compared to the competitors. Vodafone  being the  major supplier of mobile products  and services can reverse  the  trend set and make  it harder for the competitors  to make  a potential  entry. 3.3) Role of Competition Commission and regulatory bodies: Competition Commission and regulatory bodies act as a watchdog over the unfair competitions within the countries. They do this by limiting uncompetitive practices between the firms, allowing mergers and preventing monopolies from taking over the market. Regular checks are carried out by the committees on the organizations to ensure they are working on a fair trade. On 7 January 2002, Competition Commission made a ruling on Vodafone, along with o2, orange and T-Mobile over the call terminating charges. The committee did an investigation on this issue and declared that mobile termination charges were substantially high and therefore commanded the mobile networks to reduce it within a period of 4 years. Regulatory bodies such as competition commission play a vital role in maintaining a healthy competition within the markets. It is because of them that the emerging organizations can join the market and compete with the other maintained organizations. This gives the consumers an opportunity to choose from a variety of companies and get a better value of money. Significance of international trade and European dimension for the UK 4.1) Importance of international trade, economic integration and global markets to UK business organizations Resources are scattered around the world and there is not a single country that has everything it needs for continues development. Therefore international trade, economic integration and allowed entry of global markets in different countries are very important. The UK economy has one of the most open economies and is based on the services sector. It therefore encourages free trade with the rest of the world. Through this they are not only fulfilling the basic and essential needs of their people but also providing job opportunities within their country and throughout the world. Importance of Globalisation to UK Overseas Investments: There has been an increase of overseas investments both inwards and outwards in the UK economy. When companies from different parts of the world open a business in UK, they obviously bring a lot of investments, job opportunities and competitive products to the country and this helps in building the UK economy. Rising level of import penetration Particularly in those industries where Britains previous comparative advantage has been eroded such as textiles and clothing and the manufacture of lower-valued added electronic products. Developing a competitive advantage Through international trade there is no such thing as a monopolistic company in the UK. There are a range of similar services and products offered by different companies. These help the consumers in choosing from different suppliers and get a value for their money. Structural changes in industries For example the long-term loss of output and employment in industries such as textiles and other manufacturing sectors. This creates problems where factor resources are occupationally and geographically immobile In my view, Globalisation has definitely increased competitive pressures on British businesses in tradable goods industries. Cheaper prices for many international commodities and finished manufactured goods have certainly helped to control inflation in recent years and therefore reduce inflationary expectations. However, on the contrast due to Globalisation many of the well-known UK companies are now outsourcing their services which has resulted in lack of job opportunities within the country. This is weakening our economy and not leaving a good impact on our own people. 4.2) Impact of two policies of the European Union on UK business organizations The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 member states, primarily in Europe. Together these states merged to form the union so that they could have a mutual identity. Various policies have been imposed by the EU which benefits all the members in some way or another. The most important out of them are, Working rights: EU has given people from all the member states a great opportunity to find employment and study in other member countries. According to the EU commission, more than 15 million EU citizens have moved to other EU countries to work. This has given the developing countries like Poland a chance to utilize their skills in countries like UK and earn a decent livelihood. On the other hand, a large no. of people within the UK believes that the Europeans are stealing their jobs and they should not be allowed work in the UK but in actual they are just employed on the unskilled sector. In my opinion, there are still unskilled jobs in the UK market but the British either cant or dont want to work at the rates it is viable to employ them. So if you were to take all the Europeans out of the country, there will still be no jobs for the British in the unskilled sector. Free Trade: Easier cross-border trade within the EU means that small and medium sized organizations now have access to new export markets, which previously were not an option because of the cost and hassle that was involved with border bureaucracy. Single market has brought major benefits to the businesses in the UK. The free trade of goods have enabled the physical movement of goods within the UK and people across EU easily. This means that there are no trade barriers between the countries and people can freely expand their businesses. 4.3) Implication for the UK of entry into EMU In the past decades currency unions have failed so it is doubtful if the EMU will be a success either. As for the UK joining the EMU, I doubt this will be of any good. It is believed that UK might recover from recession if it joins the EMU but it is quite obvious that UK did not get into recession because of its currency. The Euro economy is also entering a recession and how can we expect to be saved by just joining the EMU is questionable. Moreover, in times like this it is more important that the UK should be independent of any monetary policy so that it could cut interest rates if necessary. Example, if the Euro economy recovers before the UK economy, interest rates may increase too quickly and harm the UKs recovery. The UK market for housing is quite sensitive to interest rates and many people have high mortgages. So, if the interest rate was to be increased or decreased it will have a great impact on buyer spending which can lead to either an inflationary boom or a deeper recession. I agree to the fact that the UK couldnt benefit from membership of the Euro currency which would have helped the tourists in using the same currency throughout the Europe and not be affected by the currency exchange rates, but it would be a very small percentage and would not have a great impact on UK economy because companies who are willing to expand and exchange business always get a much better deal than the tourists. Conclusion: This assignment in a nut shell has helped me in investigating what Vodafones economic environment is like, how it differs from other well-known organizations and what impacts does it have due to the social, economic and global factors. Vodafone is a global organization and their main aim is to satisfy all its stake holders, may it be the society, customers, employees and even government. It ensures this by having a clear vision and an approachable objective. For this reason, Vodafone always make use of effective use of their resources and take initiatives to overcome any sort of social and industrial issues while the regulatory bodies like competition commission act as a watch dog and ensures that there is always a healthy competition between organizations. Globalisation has affected everyone, in a good or a bad way. As for UK, where emphasize has been on the services sector it has been of a great use and is continuously building the economy because of the investments made by the global markets. However, the entrance of UK into European Monitory Union is still debatable because it may affect general public and the society.

Portrayal of Women in William Shakespeares Plays Essay -- Female Wome

William Shakespeare's characterization of women varies immensely from one comedy to another. In his works, Taming of the Shrew, The Merchant of Venice, and Much Ado About Nothing, he portrays both dominant and submissive women. Ultimately, Shakespeare examines the complexity of women by displaying the vast array of attitudes, emotions, and their treatment and reaction to men as well as refuting the typical subservient wife role. In Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew, the difficulties of marriage and submission take center stage. When the determined Petruchio marries the domineering Katherine it sets the scene for a battle of willpower. Eventually, Petruchio successfully 'tames' Kate at the expense of losing a potentially loving and affectionate wife. In fact, Kate behaves more like a fearful puppy dog longing to please her husband than a respectable wife. Though Kate contrasts other female characters in Shakespeare?s comedies by submitting to her husband, her obedience is merely the product of an authoritative husband?s demands and threats. Her submission is merely a faà §ade of obedience. Before marriage, Kate is notorious for her ill temper and resistance towards men. A character named Grumio calls Kate, ? ?Katherine the curst,? a title for a maid, of all the worst? (Shakespeare 57). Men fear Kate because of her violent nature and unstable emotions. But after Kate is subjected to Petruc hio?s torments, she relents to him and gives in to his ways for the benefit of sustenance and sanity. In the end, Petruchio beckons Kate to teach the other wives to be subservient to their husbands. Kate explains, ?Such duty as the subject owes the prince, even such a woman oweth to her husband; and when she is forward... ...Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea, 1988. Newman, Karen. ?The Taming of the Shrew: A Modern Perspective.? The Taming of the Shrew. William Shakespeare. New York: Washington Square Press, 1992. Novy, Marianne L. ?Patriarchy and Play.? William Shakespeare?s The Taming of the Shrew. Harold Bloom ed. New York: Chelsea, 1988. Paster, Gail. ?Much Ado About Nothing: A Modern Perspective.? Much Ado About Nothing. William Shakespeare. New York: Washington Square Press, 1992. Rossiter, A.P. ?Much Ado About Nothing.? Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea, 1986. 163-176. Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing. New York: Washington Square Press, 1995. ---. The Merchant of Venice. New York: Washington Square Press, 1992. ---. The Taming of the Shrew. New York: Washington Square Press, 1992.

Racial Prejudice in British Immigration Policy :: essays research papers

Racial Prejudice in British Immigration Policy Introduction The purpose of this paper is that to highlight what I see as racist, unjust and inhumane elements in Britain’s immigration system and the culture of secrecy surrounds it. The permanent residents (who has indefinite leave to remain), central to this discussion not the illegal immigrants and bogus asylum seekers. Also immigration’s treatments of people coming over to Britain for a range of other reasons and with papers and visas they expect to be accepted have been highlighted. Mainly my argument is, compared with other countries, UK is more suspicious of all people entering the country and they discriminate against people from ‘underdeveloped’ countries. I have read and quoted from various books in the Immigration subject area. Mainly, Ms. Catriona J. MacKenzie’s dissertation â€Å"Africans & UK Immigration Controls† for the degree of Masters in Social Work & Social Policy, which has been submitted to the University of Glasgow in 1995 greatly helped me to construct this paper. I also conducted a number of interviews in UK and Turkey with individuals with immigration difficulties. I also made extensive use of the Glasgow University Library. Citizenship The membership of individuals in modern democratic societies is marked by the status of citizenship. Those who belong in a given nation-state have documents certifying their membership. More importantly, citizens possess a wide range of civil, political and social rights. The reality has always been somewhat different. Most nation-states have had groups on their territory not considered capable of belonging, and therefore either denied citizenship or alternatively forced to go through a process of cultural assimilation in order to belong. Moreover, even those with formal membership have often been denied some of the rights vital to citizenship, so that they have not fully belonged. Discrimination based on class, gender, ethnicity, race, religion and other criteria has always meant that some people could not be full citizens. Securing the participation of previously excluded groups has been seen as the key to democratisation. Nazism and the ‘Final Solution’ temporarily stigmatised racial-biological thinking after 1945. However, the ‘New Racism’ that emerged in the 1970s evaded the opprobrium of biological racism and eugenics by superficially relocating difference away from phenotype and genes and on to culture. This has had dramatic effect on nature and appearance of racism in Britain. By camouflaging hereditary qualities as cultural inheritance, it became possible for mainstream politicians to inject racism back into debates about nationality and citizenship.

A Grain of Wheat by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

This work of art is set in pre-independent Kenya as the struggle between the colonizers and the Africans escalate. It gives a clear picture of colonial Kenya as it were and as the Africans tried to resist British rule through the Mau Mau guerillas.A Grain of Wheat by Ngugi wa Thiong’o is a novel that illustrates the people of Kenya and each of their personal journeys as they all struggled for independence through the use of a few characters.   According to Nadine Gordimer, ‘it is an extremely interesting piece of work because it brings a new theme to African literature-the effects on a people of the changes brought about in themselves by the demands of a bloody and bitter struggle for independence’ p 226Mugo is depicted in the novel as one of the major characters. He is seen as an introvert and mostly keeps to himself. In the British reserve camps where the Africans lived and worked. He is seen as a hero as he led a hunger strike and came to the defence of a pre gnant woman who was to be beaten to death by a village guard. Ironically Mugo is the one who betrayed Kihika to the British and because of this, he is now the introvert he is and broods a lot.Apparently Mugo is also jealous of Kihika; this is evident when he thinks to himself ‘what right has such a boy †¦to talk like that? What arrogance?†¦I hate him, he heard himself say’. He resents Kihika that he should be able to command such respect from everyone as he does, including his elders who all listen when he talks. ‘their eyes were fixed on Kihika; their lives seemed dependent on his falling words.Kihika who is undoubtedly the hero in the novel is portrayed as a martyr. This is because he is seen to sacrifice himself for the good of the country. On the other hand, he alludes himself to Christ in the sense that he died for the good of the people. ‘Watch ye and pray†¦calling on his audience to remember the great Swahili proverb kikulacho kiko nguo ni mwako. Meaning, those who betray you are usually your closest allies. This further alludes to him as Jesus and Mugo as Judas Iscariot.Mumbi is Kihika’s sister and Gikonyo’s wife. She is said to be the most beautiful woman in the area. Although not voluntary, she betrays her husband with his rival Karanja when he forces her to sleep with him. This causes great resentment from her husband when he returns from prison. Mumbi sees herself as the biblical Ester in trying to bring in justice for the people.Karanja although an African, is a collaborator. In this sense, he betrays his people by siding with the white man and betraying his people. He is suspected by the people as being the one who sold out Kihika but ironically it wasn’t him. He is jealous of   gikonyo but at the same time refuses to consider him a serious rival for Mumbi.

Differences Between Homogeneous Nucleation and Heterogeneous Nucleation

Newey and Weaver described nucleation as a process that must occur in a system, undergoing a phase transition, before the formation of another phase (Royce). This process is called homogeneous nucleation if it occurs away from any boundaries. On the other hand, heterogeneous nucleation takes place on a surface, interface, dislocation or other defect in the material. In addition, the latter type is favored because it requires a lower free energy change to form the initial stable nucleus where others can adhere resulting an increase in size (cited in Royce).During nucleation, the atoms are forming nano-sized solid clusters. In homogeneous nucleation, clustering occurs above the melting of the metal (Tm) turns back into the liquid state due to its stability on that phase while clustering below Tm can lead to crystallization-nuclei formation if its size reaches stability against melting (Iqbal 3). High solid-liquid interface surface energy is a thermodynamic hindrance in nucleation. Due to this energy barrier, foreign materials are added to serve as nucleation sites. These nucleation sites have lower surface energy, thus, increases the nucleation rate.The stable nuclei then grow into an equiaxed and finer grain structure (Iqbal 3). Moreover, nucleation is a kinetic process wherein atoms of the melted metal form into clusters within the liquid medium at solidification temperature (Iqbal 9). These clusters act as crystallization nuclei where other atoms adhere and solidify. The rate of nucleation process is directly affected by the difference between the equilibrium melting temperature (Tm) and the freezing temperature (Tf) or undercooling. As a rule of thumb, a higher undercooling yields higher nucleation rate. Nucleation MechanismBen Best discussed that mixtures of some metals, like copper and nickel, both in liquid and solid states are highly soluble in all given concentration. Since both copper and nickel have similar crystal structures and atomic radii, in the c ooling process the particles formed have properties imparted by both of these metals. This metal mixture type is called isomorphous. In contrast to this, the mixture of lead and tin is eutectic because of partial solubility of these metals in the solid state. Unlike copper and nickel, lead and tin have different crystal structures and atomic radii.This is the reason why the solid lead-tin alloy can only consist of 2. 5% lead and 19. 2% tin their maximum composition by weight. In addition, a eutectic mixture has composition that completely liquefies at eutectic temperature. For lead-tin mixture, the eutectic composition is 61. 9% that has a eutectic temperature of 183 ºC. This property makes lead-tin mixture as a good soldering agent. Metals typically solidify as crystals at a temperature lower than its melting temperature (Best). The difference in melting and solidification temperatures is called as the maximum undercooling.This undercooling is the effect of pure metal crystalliza tion. During the crystallization process, the nucleation of small particles or crystallization nuclei occurs first then the adherence of other particles on these nuclei follows. As such, other surrounding particles tend to dissolve it back into the liquid phase. Successful fusion into the crystal releases heat which causes other adjacent atoms to dissolve. This means that the high fusion of a metal reflects its tendency for a high solidification temperature and maximum undercooling (Best).The energy affects the dissolution process with respect to the surface area of the nucleus while energy variation favoring nucleus growth is a factor of volume proportion (Best). Surface area varies with the square of the radius, whereas volume varies with the cube of the radius. Thus, a large crystal is not susceptible to surface dissolution. In addition, a metal at a specific temperature has a critical radius size. Radius bigger than the critical radius tend to increase in size while smaller radi us is susceptible to dissolution.Nonetheless, lower temperature facilitates the attainment of the critical radius (Best). Further, crystallization may occur in less undercooling if a higher melting point metal with similar crystal structure to and insoluble at the melting temperature of the original metal is added (Best). The crystal growth around these insoluble nuclei is referred to as heterogeneous nucleation. In heterogeneous nucleation, specific sites in a material catalyze the nucleation process through the reduction of the critical free energy of nucleation (?Gc) (Balluffi, Allen, and Carter 477).It is always in kinetic competition with homogeneous nucleation wherein the faster rate mechanism prevails. The lower value of ?Gc supports heterogeneous nucleation while the greater number of potential nucleation sites favors homogeneous nucleation. Moreover, by means of the nucleation rate expressed as J = Z ßc N exp[-?Gc /(kT )], regimes of temperature, supersaturation, relativ e interfacial energies, and microstructure in which one nucleation mechanism occurs can be predicted.When a small particle deposits on the grain boundaries, edges or corners of a polycrystalline microstructures such as grain boundaries, edges or corners, these crystal imperfections will be eliminated with an associated free-energy decrease lowering ?Gc (Balluffi, Allen, and Carter 477). Solidification in Metals The solidification of metals and their alloys starts when a welded small portion of metal melts and resolidifies (â€Å"Phase Transformation†). Homogeneous nucleation occurs when there are no other chemical species involved in a nucleation process.For instance when a pure liquid metal is slowly cooled below its equilibrium m freezing temperature to a sufficient degree numerous homogeneous nuclei are created by slow-moving atoms bonding together in a crystalline form. While the involvement of other chemical species to favor nucleation results to heterogeneous nucleation . Solidification is a crucial stage in metallurgical processes such as in ingot casting, continuous casting, squeeze casting, pressure casting, atomization (Phanikumar and Chattopadhyay 25).This is also an important stage in secondary manufacturing processes such as welding, soldering, brazing, cladding and sintering. For the properties of the product largely depend on the mechanical properties and the microstructure of the different phases. The microstructure of the products on the other hand, is affected by thermal and solutal processing conditions and thermodynamic and kinetics factors of the materials (Phanikumar and Chattopadhyay 25). Solidification involves heat extraction through diffusion and convection processes, and solid-liquid interface movement.In addition, the microstructure solidification is a complex process affected by the rate of solidification (v), temperature gradient (G), composition (C) and kinetics factors such as phase equilibrium reactions, nucleation and gr owth, and crystallographic constraints (Phanikumar and Chattopadhyay 25). Solidification and Mechanical Properties Industrial treatments such as rolling or forging, alloying and thermal treatment are done to metals to strengthen their mechanical properties.For instance, pure aluminum has a tensile strength of around 13,000 pounds per square inch (psi), however, by cold-working its strength is approximately doubled. This can also be done by adding alloying metals such as manganese, silicon, copper, magnesium and zinc. Similarly, heat treatment makes the tensile strength of aluminum over 100, 000 psi (â€Å"Property Modification† n. p. ). Plastic or permanent deformation of crystalline materials is largely affected by the tendency of dislocation within the material. Thus, restraining the dislocation movement improves its strength.This is done by controlling the grain size, strain hardening, and alloying (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). In the material science engineering, a grain is a crystal with unsmooth faces due to the deferred growth in contact with a boundary (â€Å"Solidification†). The grain boundary is the interface between grains. Atoms in this region are disordered, hence, no crystalline structure. The different orientation of adjacent grains within the material, the boundary between grains hinders the dislocation movement and the resulting slip.The solidification rate controls the size and number of grains. Smaller grains denote shorter distances between atoms that can move in a slip plane, thus, improving the strength of the material (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). The improvement of metallic strength is done through strain or work hardening or cold-working. In plastic deformation of metals, the movement of dislocations produces additional dislocations (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). These dislocations interact, pin or tangle resulting to decline in dislocations movement and ca uses material strengthening.This strengthening is called as cold-working for the occurrence of plastic deformation is at low temperature which impedes atom movements. However, cold-working process reduces the ductility of metals. On the other hand, when the process is done at higher temperature, the atoms rearrange to improve material strength (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). Since cold-working process reduces ductility, thermal or heat treatment is used to remove its effect. The strengthening gained through the cold-working will be lost if the strain hardened materials are exposed at higher temperatures.Recovery, re-crystallization, and grain growth may occur during the heat treatment (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). Nucleation and Mechanical Properties The number of nucleation sites for the freezing metal affects the grain structure of the solid metal product. Few number of nucleation sites means smaller number of crystallization nuclei, hence , large-grain or coarse structure results. An increase in nucleation site numbers, on the other hand, yields fine-grain structure because a lot of crystallization nuclei are available for the dissolve phase attach and solidify.Fine grain structure is the most desired product for strength and uniformity in metal production (Poster and Easterling 125). An ideal crystal has a perfect crystalline structure and characterized by a regular repetitive lattice in any space direction. However, crystalline materials have crystallographic defects. Minor crystal defect may impart significant metallic properties. The conductivity of silicon, for instance, is doubled when it is contaminated with 10-8 percent mass of boron (Tisza 107).There are several properties that can be identified based on the ideal lattice structure such as thermal and electrical conductivities, and specific heat. These are called as structure-insensitive properties. However, there are structure-sensitive properties such as m echanical properties that are hardly predicted on the basis of ideal crystal structure. The discrepancy between the ideal and real crystal structures result to the large differences in theoretical and experimental computation of properties (Tisza 107).